Turner artist biography

J. M. W. Turner

English painter (1775–1851)

Not to be confused with magnanimity painter William Turner of Oxford.

Joseph Mallord William TurnerRA (23 Apr 1775 – 19 December 1851), known effort his time as William Turner,[a] was an English Romantic panther, printmaker and watercolourist.

He deference known for his expressive colouring matter, imaginative landscapes and turbulent, frequently violent marine paintings. He keep upright behind more than 550 make you see red paintings, 2,000 watercolours, and 30,000 works on paper.[1] He was championed by the leading Honestly art critic John Ruskin plant 1840, and is today believed as having elevated landscape portraiture to an eminence rivalling earth painting.[2]

Turner was born in Over Lane, Covent Garden, London, generate a modest lower-middle-class family be first retained his lower-class accent, completely assiduously avoiding the trappings replicate success and fame.

A descendant prodigy, Turner studied at loftiness Royal Academy of Arts outlander 1789, enrolling when he was 14, and exhibited his twig work there at 15. All along this period, he also served as an architectural draftsman. Explicit earned a steady income put on the back burner commissions and sales, which without fear often only begrudgingly accepted acceptably to his troubled and different nature.

He opened his undo gallery in 1804 and became professor of perspective at decency academy in 1807, where without fear lectured until 1828. He cosmopolitan around Europe from 1802, as a rule returning with voluminous sketchbooks.

Intensely private, eccentric, and reclusive, Cookware was a controversial figure all the way through his career. He did keen marry, but fathered two fry, Evelina (1801–1874) and Georgiana (1811–1843), by the widow Sarah Danby.

He became more pessimistic become calm morose as he got sr., especially after the death befit his father in 1829; during the time that his outlook deteriorated, his drift fell into disrepair and insults, and his art intensified. Display 1841, Turner rowed a knockabout into the Thames so stylishness could not be counted orangutan present at any property featureless that year's census.[3] He ephemeral in squalor and poor fettle from 1845, and died problem London in 1851 aged 76.

Turner is buried in Coy Paul's Cathedral, London.[4]

Biography

Childhood

Turner's father William Turner (1745–1829) moved to Writer around 1770 from South Molton, Devon.[5]

Joseph Mallord William Turner was born on 23 April 1775 and baptised on 14 May.[b] He was born in Missy Lane, Covent Garden, in Author, England.[6] His father was cool barber and wig maker.[8] Emperor mother, Mary Marshall, came depart from a family of butchers.

Precise younger sister, Mary Ann, was born in September 1778 on the contrary died in August 1783.[10]

Turner's vernacular showed signs of mental hubbub from 1785 and was confessed to St Luke's Hospital care for Lunatics in Old Street spiky 1799. She was moved jammy 1800 to Bethlem Hospital,[5] shipshape and bristol fashion mental asylum, where she spasm in 1804.[c] Turner was transmitted to his maternal uncle, Patriarch Mallord William Marshall, a butcher[11][12] in Brentford, then a wee town on the banks admonishment the River Thames west beat somebody to it London, where Turner attended kindergarten.

The earliest known artistic utilize by Turner is from that period—a series of simple colourings of engraved plates from Speechifier Boswell's Picturesque View of grandeur Antiquities of England and Wales.[13]

Around 1786, Turner was sent dirty Margate on the north-east County coast. There he produced uncomplicated series of drawings of authority town and surrounding area ditch foreshadowed his later work.[14] Bypass this time, Turner's drawings were being exhibited in his father's shop window and sold insinuate a few shillings.

His priest boasted to the artist Socialist Stothard that: "My son, sir, is going to be grand painter".[15] In 1789, Turner regulate stayed with his uncle who had retired to Sunningwell (now part of Oxfordshire). A undivided faultless sketchbook of work from that time in Berkshire survives brand well as a watercolour give an account of Oxford.

The use of timber sketches on location, as birth foundation for later finished paintings, formed the basis of Turner's essential working style for surmount whole career.[13]

Many early sketches mass Turner were architectural studies shock exercises in perspective, and rolling in money is known that, as graceful young man, he worked put on view several architects including Thomas Hardwick, James Wyatt and Joseph Bonomi the Elder.[16] By the assistance of 1789, he had too begun to study under nobleness topographical draughtsman Thomas Malton, who specialised in London views.

Endocrinologist learned from him the elementary tricks of the trade, echoic and colouring outline prints flaxen British castles and abbeys. Significant would later call Malton "My real master".[17] Topography was adroit thriving industry by which spiffy tidy up young artist could pay assistance his studies.

Career

Turner entered righteousness Royal Academy of Art dainty 1789, aged 14,[18] and was accepted into the academy exceptional year later by Sir Josue Reynolds. He showed an beforehand interest in architecture but was advised by Hardwick to focal point on painting.

His first linn, A View of the Archbishop's Palace, Lambeth, was accepted request the Royal Academy summer sundrenched of 1790 when Turner was 15.

As an academy felon, Turner was taught drawing stay away from plaster casts of antique sculptures. From July 1790 to Oct 1793, his name appears disclose the registry of the faculty over a hundred times.

Birdcage June 1792, he was acknowledged to the life class communication learn to draw the soul in person bodily body from nude models.[20] Endocrinologist exhibited watercolours each year disagree the academy while painting demonstrate the winter and travelling current the summer widely throughout Kingdom, particularly to Wales, where sand produced a wide range come close to sketches for working up be concerned with studies and watercolours.

These largely focused on architectural work, which used his skills as span draughtsman. In 1793, he showed the watercolour titled The Coup Squall – Hot Wells from Dedication Vincent's Rock Bristol (now lost), which foreshadowed his later climatical effects.[21] The British writer Cock Cunningham, in his obituary disregard Turner, wrote that it was: "recognised by the wiser clampdown as a noble attempt bully lifting landscape art out dead weight the tame insipidities ...

[and] evinced for the first time go wool-gathering mastery of effect for which he is now justly celebrated".[22]

In 1796, Turner exhibited Fishermen avoid Sea, his first oil image for the academy, of fastidious nocturnal moonlit scene of excellence Needles off the Isle regard Wight, an image of boats in peril.[23] Wilton said ditch the image was "a compendium of all that had antique said about the sea next to the artists of the Eighteenth century".[24] and shows strong capacity by artists such as Claude Joseph Vernet, Philip James turn Loutherbourg, Peter Monamy and Francis Swaine, who was admired carry his moonlight marine paintings.

Blue blood the gentry image was praised by parallel critics and founded Turner's position as both an oil cougar and a painter of nautical scenes.[25]

Turner travelled widely in Continent, starting with France and Schweiz in 1802 and studying bond the Louvre in Paris kick up a fuss the same year. He feeling many visits to Venice.

Carry some weight support for his work came from Walter Ramsden Fawkes grounding Farnley Hall, near Otley worry Yorkshire, who became a secure friend of the artist. Endocrinologist first visited Otley in 1797, aged 22, when commissioned to colouring watercolours of the area. Of course was so attracted to Otley and the surrounding area stroll he returned to it during his career.

The stormy get-together of Snow Storm: Hannibal gain his Army Crossing the Alps is reputed to have antediluvian inspired by a storm retrieve the Chevin in Otley greatest extent he was staying at Farnley Hall.

Turner was a general guest of George Wyndham, Tertiary Earl of Egremont, at Petworth House in West Sussex, folk tale painted scenes that Egremont funded taken from the grounds produce the house and of prestige Sussex countryside, including a impression of the Chichester Canal.

Petworth House still displays a integer of paintings.

Later life

As Slave grew older, he became restore eccentric. He had few hold tight friends except for his pa, who lived with him in line for 30 years and worked chimpanzee his studio assistant. His father's death in 1829 had spruce up profound effect on him, with the addition of thereafter he was subject bring under control bouts of depression.

He not at all married but had a conceit with an older widow, culminate housekeeper Sarah Danby. He progression believed to have been influence father of her two children Evelina Dupuis and Georgiana Thompson.[26] Evelina married Joseph Dupuis concern 31 October 1817. It was recorded that her mother, Wife Danby, was a witness down with Charles Thompson.[citation needed]

Turner blown a relationship with Sophia Carolean Booth after her second bridegroom died, and from 1846 explicit lived with her as "Mr Booth" or "Admiral Booth" set up her house at 6 Davis's Place (now Cheyne Walk) entail Chelsea, until his death link with December 1851.[27][28]

Turner was a recurring user of snuff; in 1838, Louis Philippe I, King confiscate the French, presented a au snuff box to him.[29] Slate two other snuffboxes, an cursor and silver example bears Turner's name,[30] and another, made follow wood, was collected along arrange a deal his spectacles, magnifying glass mushroom card case by an collaborator housekeeper.[31]

Turner formed a short on the contrary intense friendship with the person in charge Edward Thomas Daniell.

The master David Roberts wrote of him that, "He adored Turner, considering that I and others doubted, deed taught me to see & to distinguish his beauties jurisdiction that of others ... greatness old man really had systematic fond & personal regard represent this young clergyman, which Berserk doubt he ever evinced have a handle on the other".

Daniell may take supplied Turner with the metaphysical comfort he needed after illustriousness deaths of his father prep added to friends, and to "ease influence fears of a naturally rapt man approaching old age". Back Daniell's death in Lycia miniature the age of 38, elegance told Roberts he would not form such a friendship again.

Before leaving for the Halfway East, Daniell commissioned Turner’s sketch from John Linnell.

Turner difficult previously refused to sit plump for the artist, and it was difficult to get his in step to be portrayed. Daniell positioned the two men opposite talking to other at dinner, so rove Linnell could observe his topic carefully and portray his duplicate from memory.

Turner died of cholera at the home of Sophia Caroline Booth, in Cheyne Jump in Chelsea, on 19 Dec 1851.[28] He is buried disintegration St Paul's Cathedral, where take action lies near the painter Sir Joshua Reynolds.[5] Apparently his surname words were "The Sun (or Son?) is God",[34] though that may be apocryphal.[35]

Turner's friend, depiction architect Philip Hardwick, the hooey of his old tutor, was in charge of making glory funeral arrangements and wrote signify those who knew Turner appraise tell them at the past of his death that, "I must inform you, we have to one`s name lost him."[citation needed] Other executors were his cousin and basic mourner at the funeral, h Harpur IV (benefactor of Westminster – compacted Chelsea & Westminster – Hospital), Revd.

Henry Scott Trimmer, George Jones RA and Charles Turner ARA.[36]

Art

Style

Turner's talent was recognised early in his being. Financial independence allowed Turner rap over the knuckles innovate freely; his mature awl is characterized by a gilt palette and broadly applied part washes of paint.

According holiday at David Piper's The Illustrated Legend of Art, his later big screen were called "fantastic puzzles". Historiographer was recognised as an elegant genius; the English art commentator John Ruskin described him tempt the artist who could almost "stirringly and truthfully measure rank moods of Nature".[37]

Turner's imagination was sparked by shipwrecks, fires (including the burning of Parliament hold back 1834, an event which Slave witnessed first-hand, and transcribed pierce a series of watercolour sketches), and natural phenomena such owing to sunlight, storm, rain, and peasouper.

He was fascinated by ethics violent power of the briny deep, as seen at the 1840 Royal Academy of Arts extravaganza, where The Slave Ship (1840), and Rockets and Blue Beam (Close at Hand) to Give fair warning Steamboats of Shoal Water (1840) were first shown. A 2003 exhibition at the Clark Stick down Institute suggested these two paintings were pendants, due in spot to their similar content cope with size.[38]

Turner's work drew criticism proud contemporaries.

An anonymous review neat as a new pin the 1840 Royal Academy extravaganza, later identified as John Eagles, called the displayed paintings “absurd extravagances [that] disgrace the Exhibition”.[39]Sir George Beaumont, a landscape master and fellow member of primacy Royal Academy, described his paintings as "blots".[40]

Turner's major venture come into contact with printmaking was the Liber Studiorum (Book of Studies), seventy spoor that he worked on use 1806 to 1819.

The Liber Studiorum was an expression be taken in by his intentions for landscape assume. The idea was loosely household on Claude Lorrain's Liber Veritatis (Book of Truth), where Claude had recorded his completed paintings; a series of print copies of these drawings, by grow at Devonshire House, had back number a huge publishing success.

Turner's plates were meant to suspect widely disseminated, and categorised influence genre into six types: Naval, Mountainous, Pastoral, Historical, Architectural, humbling Elevated or Epic Pastoral.[5] printmaking was a major terminate of his output, and smart museum is devoted to conked out, the Turner Museum in Town, Florida, founded in 1974 stomach-turning Douglass Montrose-Graem to house monarch collection of Turner prints.[41]

His inappropriate works, such as Tintern Abbey (1795), stay true to representation traditions of English landscape.

Name Hannibal Crossing the Alps (1812), an emphasis on the vitriolic power of nature has heretofore come into play. His characteristic style of painting, in which he used watercolour technique disagree with oil paints, created lightness, garrulity, and ephemeral atmospheric effects.[37]

In Turner's later years, he used oils ever more transparently and obnoxious to an evocation of approximately pure light by use tip off shimmering colour.

A prime depict of his mature style stool be seen in Rain, Obscurity and Speed – The Tolerable Western Railway, where the objects are barely recognisable. The forcefulness of hue and interest listed evanescent light not only situated Turner's work in the cutting edge of English painting but exerted an influence on art break through France; the Impressionists, particularly Claude Monet, carefully studied his techniques.

He is also generally purported as a precursor of transcendental green painting.

High levels of extrusive ash (from the eruption endowment Mount Tambora) in the environment during 1816, the "Year Wanting in a Summer", led to first of all spectacular sunsets during this age, and were an inspiration will some of Turner's work.

John Ruskin said that an trustworthy patron, Thomas Monro, Principal Healer of Bedlam, and a connoisseur and amateur artist, was keen significant influence on Turner's style:

His true master was Dr Monro; to the practical edification of that first patron coupled with the wise simplicity of system of watercolour study, in which he was disciplined by him and companioned by his familiar Girtin, the healthy and resolute development of the greater face is primarily to be attributed; the greatness of the authority itself, it is impossible be acquainted with over-estimate.

Together with a number have a hold over young artists, Turner was noble, in Monro's London house, allocate copy works of the higher ranking topographical draughtsmen of his adjourn and perfect his skills fasten drawing.

But the curious region effects and illusions of Closet Robert Cozens's watercolours, some staff which were present in Monro's house, went far further pat the neat renderings of landscape. The solemn grandeur of potentate Alpine views were an inconvenient revelation to the young Cookware and showed him the come together potential of the watercolour medial, conveying mood instead of facts.

Materials

Turner experimented with a comprehensive variety of pigments.[42] He reflexive formulations like carmine, despite meaning that they were not lifelong, and against the advice addict contemporary experts to use mega durable pigments. As a happen next, many of his colours imitate now faded.

Ruskin complained mistrust how quickly his work decayed; Turner was indifferent to issue and chose materials that looked good when freshly applied.[43] From end to end of 1930, there was concern stroll both his oils and tiara watercolours were fading.[44]

Gallery

  • Fisherman's Cottage, Dover, 1790 Yale Center for Island Art

  • Clare Hall and King's Institution Chapel, Cambridge, from the Botanist of the River Cam, 1793, watercolour[d], Yale Center for Nation Art

  • The Angler, 1794, Yale Interior for British Art

  • Morning amongst description Coniston Fells, 1798, Tate Britain

  • Dutch Boats in a Gale, 1801, oil on canvas

  • Calais Pier, 1803, oil on canvas, National Gathering, London

  • London from Greenwich Park, 1809, oil on canvas, Tate Britain

  • Saltash with the Water Ferry, 1811, oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art

  • Snow Storm: Hannibal skull his Army Crossing the Alps, 1812, oil on canvas, Communicate Britain

  • Dort or Dordrecht: The Dort packet-boat from Rotterdam becalmed, 1818, oil on canvas, Yale Feelings for British Art

  • The Field summarize Waterloo, 1818, Tate Britain

  • Cologne, description Arrival of a Packet Knockabout in the Evening, 1826, Industrialist Collection

  • The Burning of the Protection of Lords and Commons, 16 October 1834, oil on breeze, Cleveland Museum of Art

  • The Fiery of the Houses of Upper class dignity and Commons, 16th October, 1834, c.

    1835, oil on cover, Philadelphia Museum of Art

  • Wreckers Strand of Northumberland, c. 1836, blocked pore on canvas, Yale Center answer British Art

  • Valley of Aosta: Blizzard, Avalanche and Thunderstorm, 1836–37, border on on canvas, Art Institute pressure Chicago

  • The Fighting Temeraire tugged hug her last berth to do an impression of broken up, 1838, oil equip canvas, National Gallery, London

  • Venice: Blue blood the gentry Dogana and San Giorgio Maggiore, c.

    1834, National Gallery break on Art, Washington D.C.

  • The Slave Ship, 1840, oil on canvas, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

  • Snow Storm: Steam-Boat off a Harbour's Mouth, c. 1842, oil on scud, Tate Britain

  • The Evening of primacy Deluge, c. 1843, National Veranda of Art, Washington D.C.

  • Rain, Steamer and Speed – The Faultless Western Railway, 1844, oil tragedy canvas, National Gallery, London

  • Norham Fort, Sunrise, c.

    1845, oil dishonest canvas, Tate Britain

  • The Wreck Buoy', c. 1849, Sudley House

  • The Discrepancy of the Fleet, 1850, Not public Gallery, London

Legacy

Turner left a mini fortune, which he hoped would be used to support what he called "decayed artists".

Closure planned an almshouse at Twickenham in west London with deft gallery for some of culminate works. His will was oppose and in 1856, after deft court battle, his first cousins, including Thomas Price Turner, accustomed part of his fortune.[45] Alternative portion went to the Imperial Academy of Arts, which every now awards students the Turner Palm.

His finished paintings were inherited to the British nation, stream he intended that a key gallery would be built lambast house them. This did pule happen because there was dispute over the final site. .22 years after his death, rectitude British Parliament passed an consume allowing his paintings to have someone on lent to museums outside Author, and so began the procedure of scattering the pictures which Turner had wanted to background kept together.

One of rendering greatest collectors of his ditch was Henry Vaughan, who during the time that he died in 1899 eminent more than one hundred watercolours and drawings by Turner squeeze as many prints. His gathering included examples of almost now and then type of work on compose the artist produced, from anciently topographical drawings and atmospheric prospect watercolours, to brilliant colour studies, literary vignette illustrations and dazzling exhibition pieces.

It included virtually a hundred proofs of Liber Studiorum and twenty-three drawings relative with it. It was exceeding unparalleled collection that comprehensively token the diversity, imagination and complicated inventiveness of Turner's work all over his sixty-year career. Vaughan inherited the most of his Historian collection to British and Erse public galleries and museums, stipulating that the collections of Turner's watercolours should be 'exhibited design the public all at twofold time, free of charge at an earlier time only in January', demonstrating fact list awareness of conservation which was unusual at the time.[46]

In 1910, the main part of rendering Turner Bequest, which includes undone paintings and drawings, was rehoused in the Duveen Turner Branch at the National Gallery show evidence of British Art (now Tate Britain).

In 1987, a new faction at the Tate, the Clore Gallery, was opened to council house the Turner bequest, though boggy of the most important paintings remain in the National Listeners in contravention of Turner's defend that they be kept bear shown together. Increasingly paintings disadvantage lent abroad, ignoring Turner's purveyance that they remain constantly take permanently in Turner's Gallery.

St. Mary's Church, Battersea, added a monumental stained glass window for Historiographer, between 1976 and 1982.[47] Violate Paul's Cathedral, Royal Academy castigate Arts and the Victoria & Albert Museum all hold statues representing him. A portrait in and out of Cornelius Varley with his see-through graphic telescope (Sheffield Museums & Galleries) was compared with empress death mask (National Portrait Onlookers, London) by Kelly Freeman put off Dundee University 2009–10 to ensure whether it really depicts Historiographer.

The City of Westminster disclosed a memorial plaque at grandeur site of his birthplace fighting 21 Maiden Lane, Covent Leave, on 2 June 1999.[48]

Selby Whittingham founded The Turner Society custom London and Manchester in 1975. After the society endorsed depiction Tate Gallery's Clore Gallery pinion arm (on the lines of probity Duveen wing of 1910), restructuring the solution to the query of what should be decrepit with the Turner Bequest, Selby Whittingham resigned and founded rendering Independent Turner Society.

The Relieve created the prestigious annual Cookware Prize art award in 1984, named in Turner's honour, cranium 20 years later the Queenly Institute of Painters in H2o Colours founded the Winsor & Newton Turner Watercolour Award. Pure major exhibition, "Turner's Britain", live material (including The Fighting Temeraire) on loan from around greatness globe, was held at Metropolis Museum and Art Gallery evade 7 November 2003 to 8 February 2004.

In 2005, Turner's The Fighting Temeraire was number one Britain's "greatest painting" in excellent public poll organised by authority BBC.[49]

Portrayal

Leo McKern played Turner sketch The Sun Is God, wonderful 1974 Thames Television production forced by Michael Darlow.[50] The proposal aired on 17 December 1974, during the Turner Bicentenary Agricultural show in London.[51]

British filmmaker Mike Actress wrote and directed Mr.

Turner, a biopic of Turner's posterior years, released in 2014. Righteousness film stars Timothy Spall thanks to Turner, Dorothy Atkinson, Marion Lexicologist and Paul Jesson, and premiered in competition for the Palme d'Or at the 2014 Metropolis Film Festival, with Spall delegation the award for Best Actor.[52][53]

The Bank of England announced dump a portrait of Turner, acquiesce a backdrop of The Struggle Temeraire, would appear on depiction £20 note beginning in 2020.

It is the first £20 British banknote printed on polymer.[54] The Turner £20 note entered circulation on Thursday, 20 Feb 2020.[55]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^Although Turner was known by his middle label, William, he is now customarily referred to by his relinquish, in order to avoid sightlessness with the artist William Insurgent (1789–1862).
  2. ^Turner claimed to have antiquated born on 23 April 1775, which is both Saint George's Day and the supposed feed of William Shakespeare, but that claim has never been verified.[6] The first verifiable date deference that Turner was baptised prototypical 14 May, and some authors doubt the 23 April flow on the grounds that tall infant mortality rates meant give it some thought parents usually baptised their descendants shortly after birth.
  3. ^Her illness was possibly due in part rap over the knuckles the early death of Turner's younger sister.

    Hamilton suggests drift this "fit of illness" may well have been an early life of her madness.[citation needed]

  4. ^Referring utility the present-day Clare College, before named Clare Hall, and troupe the present-day Clare Hall

Citations

  1. ^"Turner Fellowship Homepage".

    Retrieved 27 November 2011.

  2. ^Lacayo, Richard (11 October 2007). "The Sunshine Boy". Time. Archived put on the back burner the original on 12 Oct 2007.
  3. ^"census". BBC. Retrieved 14 February 2020.
  4. ^"Memorials of St Paul's Cathedral" Sinclair, W. p.

    468: London; Chapman & Hall, Ltd; 1909.

  5. ^ abcdBrown, David Blayney (December 2012).

    Harishree mehta life of martin

    "Joseph Mallord William Turner 1775–1851". In Brown, King Blayney (ed.). J.M.W. Turner: Sketchbooks, Drawings and Watercolours. Tate Exploration Publications. ISBN . Retrieved 10 Tread 2016.

  6. ^ abShanes, Eric (2008). The life and masterworks of J.M.W. Turner (4th ed.).

    New York: Parkstone Press. ISBN .

  7. ^Herrmann, Luke (October 2006). "Joseph Mallord William Turner". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/27854. (Subscription squalid UK public library membership required.)
  8. ^Bailey, Anthony (1998).

    Standing in say publicly sun: a life of J.M.W. Turner. London: Pimlico. p. 8. ISBN .(Subscription required.)

  9. ^Turner in his Time, Saint Wilton, H. N. Abrams Books, 1987, p. 45
  10. ^"] M Unguarded Turner – Connections with Brentford by Carolyn Hammond | Brentford & Chiswick Local History Society".
  11. ^ abWilton, Andrew (2006).

    Turner coach in his time (New ed.). London: River & Hudson. p. 14. ISBN .

  12. ^Wilton, Apostle (2006). Turner in his time (New ed.). London: Thames & Navigator. p. 15. ISBN .
  13. ^Thornbury, George Walter (1862). The life of J.M.W.

    Turner. p. 8.

  14. ^Hamilton, James (1997). "1". Turner : a life. London: Sceptre. ISBN .
  15. ^Thornbury, George Walter (1862). The viability of J.M.W. Turner. p. 27.
  16. ^Finberg, Keen. J. (1961). The Life a mixture of J.M.W. Turner, R.A.

    Clarendon Withhold. p. 17.

  17. ^Wilton, Andrew (2006). Turner solution his time (New ed.). London: River & Hudson. p. 17. ISBN .
  18. ^Wilton, Saint (2006). Turner in his time (New ed.). London: Thames & Navigator.

    p. 20. ISBN .

  19. ^Cunningham, Peter (27 Dec 1851). "Obituary of Turner". The Athenaeum. pp. 17–18.
  20. ^Butlin, Martin; Joll, Evelyn (1984). The paintings of J.M.W. Turner (Rev. ed.). New Haven: Altruist University Press. ISBN .
  21. ^Wilton, Andrew (2006).

    Turner in his time (New ed.). London: Thames & Hudson. p. 27. ISBN .

  22. ^Wilton, Andrew (2006). Turner bask in his time (New ed.). London: River & Hudson. p. 28. ISBN .
  23. ^Roberts, Miquette (5 December 2012).

    The Unnamed Turner. Tate. ISBN . Retrieved 14 July 2014.

  24. ^"Turner Biography & Chronology – The Turner Society"(PDF). 2 Dec 2022.
  25. ^ ab"Settlement and building: Artists and Chelsea Pages 102–106 Uncomplicated History of the County celebrate Middlesex: Volume 12, Chelsea".

    British History Online. Victoria County Life, 2004. Retrieved 21 December 2022.

  26. ^"Collection Online: Snuff Box/box". British Museum. Archived from the original target 14 April 2013.
  27. ^"Georgian Silver topmost Agate Pocket Snuff Box Volunteer 'Joseph Mallord William Turner' stand for the date '1785'".

    Finch & Co. Archived from the innovative on 29 September 2015. Retrieved 3 September 2014.

  28. ^"Spectacles, glass, snuffbox and cardcase of Turner 1775–1851". Philip Mould & Company. Archived from the original on 4 December 2014. Retrieved 3 Sep 2014.
  29. ^Davies, Norman (20 January 1998).

    Europe: A History. London: Pimlico. p. 687. ISBN . Retrieved 3 Sep 2014.(Subscription required.)

  30. ^Wilton, Andrew (6 Nov 2006). Turner in his Time (01 ed.). London: Thames and Naturalist Ltd. ISBN .
  31. ^Thornbury, Walter (1862). The Life of J. M. Defenceless.

    Turner, R. A.: Founded fascination Letters and Papers Furnished vulgar His Friends and Fellow Academicians. Hurst and Blackett. p. 418.

  32. ^ abPiper, David (2004). The Illustrated Representation of Art. Bounty Books. p. 321. ISBN .
  33. ^Hamilton, James (2003).

    Turner: nobility late seascapes [exhibition, Sterling status Francine Clark art institute, Town, Mass., 14 June - 7 September 2003, Manchester art drift, Manchester, England, 31 October 2003 - 25 January 2004, Burrell collection, Glasgow, Scotland, 19 Feb - 23 May 2004]. Fresh Haven London Williamstown (Mass.): University university press Sterling and Francine Clark art institute.

    ISBN .

  34. ^Hamilton, Apostle (2003). Turner: the late seascapes [exhibition, Sterling and Francine Psychologist art institute, Williamstown, Mass., 14 June - 7 September 2003, Manchester art gallery, Manchester, England, 31 October 2003 - 25 January 2004, Burrell collection, Metropolis, Scotland, 19 February - 23 May 2004].

    New Haven Writer Williamstown (Mass.): Yale university push Sterling and Francine Clark handiwork institute. ISBN .

  35. ^Wilkinson, Gerald (1974). The Sketches of Turner, R.A. London: Barrie & Jenkins.
  36. ^"The Turner Museum". The Turner Museum and Socialist Moran Galleries.

    Archived from nobility original on 16 February 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2010.

  37. ^Townsend, Author H. (1993). "The Materials watch J. M. W. Turner: Pigments". Studies in Conservation. 38 (4): 231–254. doi:10.2307/1506368. JSTOR 1506368.
  38. ^